Contribution of India towards the World

CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIA TO THE WORLD

Zero

Indians were the first to use Zero as a numeral. Zero was invented by Aryabhatta. The concept of zero is referred to as shunya in the early Sanskrit texts and it is also explained in the Pingala’s Chandah Sutra (200 AD). The Hindu genius Bhaskaracharya proved that x divided by 0 = ∞ (infinity) and that infinity however divided remains infinity. This concept was recognized in Hindu theology millennia earlier. The earliest recorded date for an inscription of zero (inscribed on a copper plate) was found in Gujarat (585 – 586 AD). Later, zero appeared in Arabic books in 770 AD and from there it was carried to Europe in 800 AD.

Decimal Number System

The decimal number system of place value 10 was invented by Indians in 100 BC.

Place Value System

The present place value system was invented by Indians.

Algebra, Trigonometry, Geometry and Calculus

Algebra, Trigonometry, Geometry and Calculus originated in India. Quadratic equations were by Sridharacharya in the 11th century. The word Geometry seems to have emerged from the Sanskrit word gyaa-miti which means "measuring the Earth". And the word Trigonometry is similar to tri-kona-miti meaning "measuring triangular forms". Euclid is credited with the invention of Geometry in 300 BCE while the concept of Geometry in India emerged in 1000 BCE, from the practice of making fire altars in square and rectangular shapes. The treatise of Surya Siddhanta describes amazing details of Trigonometry, which were introduced to Europe 1200 years later in the 16th century by Briggs. All Hindu as well as Buddhist mandalas and yantras are complex forms of Geometrical shapes.

Bhaskaracharya otherwise known as Bhaskara is probably the most well known mathematician of ancient Indian today. Bhaskara wrote his famous Siddhanta Siroman in the year 1150 A.D. It is divided into four parts; Lilavati (arithmetic), Bijaganita (a treatise on algebra), Goladhyaya (celestial globe), and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). An Arabic Scholar Al Zabar translated a Bhaskara's work Bijaganita from Sanskrit. It was later known as Algebra in European languages.

Binary Number System

The Binary number system which is used in modern computers and digital devices was invented in India. Binary numbers were first described by Pingala (c. 200 BC). Pingala is the traditional name of the author of the Chandaḥśāstra, the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody.

The largest numbers the Greeks and the Romans used were 106 whereas Indians used numbers as big as 10⁵³ (i.e 10 raise to the power of 53 ) with specific names as early as 5000 B.C. During the Vedic period.

Even today, the largest used number is Tera: 10¹² (10 to the power of 12).

The value of “pi” correct to 5 decimal places was manipulated by Aryabhatta and he was the first scientist to declare pi as an irrational number. However the value of “pi” correct to 31 decimals has been encrypted in ancient Indian Vedas long before the invention of Aryabhatta or the Greek.

Pythagorean Theorem

Budhayana explained the concept of what is known as the Pythagorean Theorem today. He discovered this in the 6th century, which was long before the European mathematician, Pythagoras was born.

Law of Gravity

Newton’s theory of gravity was known to Indians 1200 years before Newton was born.

In Surya Siddhanta, dated 400-500 AD, the ancient Hindu astronomer Bhaskaracharya states,

"Objects fall on the earth due to a force of attraction by the earth. Therefore, the earth, planets, constellations, moon, and sun are held in orbit due to this force."

Approximately 1200 years later (1687 AD), Sir Isaac Newton rediscovered this phenomenon and called it the Law of Gravity.

Astronomy and Cosmology studies originated in India.

Chess

Chess was invented in India.

The game of chess was invented in India and was originally called Ashtapada (sixty-four squares).

"Ashtapada" Sanskrit for spider -"a legendary being with eight legs" was played with dice on an 8x8 checkered board. There were no light and dark squares like we see in today's chess board for 1,000 years. Other Indian boards included the 10×10 Dasapada and the 9×9 Saturankam.

Later this game came to be known as chaturanga. The Sanskrit name Chaturanga means 'quadripartite' — the four angas (divided into four parts). The earliest known form of chess is two-handed chaturanga, Sanskrit for "the 4 branches of the army." Like real Indian armies at that time, the pieces were called elephants, chariots, horses and foot soldiers. Unlike modern chess, chaturanga was mainly a game of chance; results depended on how well you rolled the dice.

In fact, Yudhishthira and Duryodhana, in the Mahabharata, played a version of chaturanga using a dice. The game Chaturanga was a battle simulation game which rendered Indian military strategy of the time.

In 600 AD this game was learned by Persians who named it Shatranj. Shatranj is a foreign word among the Persians and the Arabians, whereas its natural derivation from the term Chaturanga is obvious. Again affix the Arabic name for the bishop, means the elephant, derived from alephhind, the Indian elephant.

Snakes & Ladders Game

The game of snakes & ladders was created by the 13th century poet saint Gyandev. It was originally called ‘Mokshapat.’ The ladders in the game represented virtues and the snakes indicated vices. The game was played with cowrie shells and dices. Later through time, the game underwent several modifications but the meaning is the same i.e good deeds take us to heaven and evil to a cycle of re-births.

Takshila University

The world’s first university was the Takshila University which existed during 700 BC, located in the northwest region of India. It had 300 lecture halls, laboratories, a library and a towering observatory for astronomical research. 68 subjects were taught at this university and the minimum entry age, ancient texts show, was 16. At one stage, it had 200 professors and 10,500 students including those from Babylon, Greece, Syria, and China. Experienced masters taught the Vedas, languages, grammar, philosophy, medicine, surgery, archery, politics, warfare, astronomy, accounts, commerce, documentation, music, dance and other performing arts, futurology, the occult and mystical sciences,complex mathematical calculations. The panel of masters at the university included legendary scholars like Kautilya, Panini, Jivak and Vishnu Sharma.

Ayurveda

Ayurveda is the earliest school of medicine known to mankind. The father of medicine, Charaka, consolidated Ayurveda 2500 years ago in India.

Ayurveda is a Sanskrit term, made up of the words "ayus" and "veda." "Ayus" means life and "Veda" means knowledge or science. The term "ayurveda" thus means 'the knowledge of life' or 'the science of life'. According to the ancient Ayurvedic scholar Charaka, "ayu" comprises the mind, body, senses and the soul. Ayurveda can be defined as a system, which uses the inherent principles of nature, to help maintain health in a person by keeping the individual's body, mind and spirit in perfect equilibrium with nature.

Surgery

Sushruta is regarded as the father of surgery. Over 2600 years ago Sushrata & his team conducted complicated surgeries like cataract, artificial limbs, cesareans, fractures, urinary stones and also plastic surgery and brain surgeries. More than 3000 different surgeries were performed and nearly 120 surgical instruments have been used before 2600 years itself.

Medicine

Usage of anesthesia was well known in ancient India medicine. Detailed knowledge of anatomy, embryology, digestion, metabolism, physiology, etiology, genetics and immunity is also found in many ancient Indian texts.

Navigation

The art of Navigation & Navigating was born in the river Sindh 6000 over years ago. The very word ‘Navigation’ is derived from the Sanskrit word NAVGATIH. The word navy is also derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Nou’.

Time of Earth’s Revolution

The famous Hindu mathematician, Bhaskaracharya, in his treatise Surya Siddhanta, calculated the time taken for the earth to orbit the sun to nine decimal places (365.258756484 days).

Bhaskaracharya rightly calculated the time taken by the earth to orbit the sun hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart. His calculations was - Time taken by earth to orbit the sun: ( 5th century ) 365.258756484 days.

Today’s accepted measurement is 365.2564 days. Therefore, assuming that today’s figures are correct, it means that Bhaskaracharya was off by only 0.0002%.

Metallurgy

India was the world-leader in Metallurgy for more than 5,000 years. Gold jewelery is available from 3,000 BCE. Brass and bronze pieces are dated back to 1,300 BCE. Extraction of zinc from ore by distillation was used in India as early as 400 BCE while European William Campion patented the process some 2,000 years later. Copper statues can be dated back to 500 CE. There is an iron pillar in Delhi dating back to 400 CE that shows no sign of rust or decay.

The earliest know book on metallurgy was known to be written by Nagarjuna in 10th century. The book Rasaratnanakara addresses various metallurgical topics such as:

Preparation of liquids (rasas) such as Mercury

Extraction of metals like Gold, Silver, Tin, and Copper from their ores and their purification

The processes of liquefaction, distillation, sublimation, and roasting

India was invaded by Mohammedans during the time of Nagarjuna. It is possible that Nagarjuna's texts fell into the hands of the invaders, who could have transmitted these Indian Metallurgical sciences to the outside world.

Buddhism and Jainism originated in India.

Unit of Time

The ancient Indians had given the world the idea of the smallest and largest measuring units of Time. The smallest is the 34,000th of a second (krati) and the largest is the 4.32 Billion years (mahayuga).

Yoga

Yoga was invented in India.

Radio/Wireless communication

We all know that Marconi received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for contribution to the development of wireless telegraphy. But the first public demonstration of radio waves for communication was made by Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose in 1895, two years prior to Marconi’s similar demonstration in England.

USA based IEEE has proved what has been a century old suspicion in the world scientific community that the pioneer of wireless communication was Prof. Jagdeesh Bose and not Marconi.

Sir Bose was posthumously credited (more than a century later) for his achievement. The fact remains that this discovery truly shaped the face of modern wireless communication.

Fiber Optics

Named as one of the 7 ‘Unsung Heroes’ by Fortune Magazine, Dr. Narinder Singh Kapany, is widely recognized as the ‘Father of Fiber Optics’ for his pioneering work in Fiber Optics technology

Jaipur Foot

The idea of the Jaipur Foot was conceived by Ram Chander Sharma under the guidance of Dr. P.K. Sethi, who was then the head of the Department of Orthopedics at Sawai ManSingh Medical College in Jaipur, India.They developed it in 1968. Designed in and named after Jaipur, India, the prosthetic leg was designed to be inexpensive, water-resistant, and quick to fit and manufacture. The Jaipur Foot is superior to its SACH (Solid Ankle Cushion Heel) counterpart in certain ways, mainly in the range of movements it offers. The articulation at the 'ankle' allows not only inversion-eversion movements but also dorsiflexion (essential for squatting, standing up from prone position, etc.) and a shorter keel helps achieve this. Also, the materials used at the foot-end are waterproof and moderately mimic a real foot.

These features help a physically-challenged person assimilate more easily in a semi-urban or rural setup in the Indian subcontinent and other developing countries.

Shampoo

The word shampoo is derived from Hindi word chāmpo and dates to 1762. The shampoo itself originated in the eastern regions of the Mughal Empire where it was introduced as a head massage, usually consisting of alkali , natural oils and fragrances. Shampoo was first introduced in Britain by a Bengali entrepreneur from Bihar named Sake Dean Mahomed.

Fibonacci Series

This sequence was first described by Virahanka (c. 700 AD), Gopāla (c. 1135), and Hemachandra as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by Pingala.

Flush Toilets

Flush toilets were first used in the Indus Valley Civilization. These existed in most homes and were connected to a sophisticated sewage mechanism. The civilization was prominent in hydraulic engineering.

Buttons

Buttons were first used in Mohenjo-daro for ornamental purpose rather than for fastening. They were first used in the Indus Valley Civilization by 2000 BCE.

Cotton

The ancient Greeks used to wear animal skins and were not even aware of cotton. But Indians had started cultivating cotton during the 5th – 4th millennium BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization.

Jute

Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times. India also exported raw jute to the western world , where it was used to make ropes and cordage. The Indian jute industry was later modernized during the British Raj in India.

The Pentium Chip

The Pentium Chip was invented by an Indian. Vinod Dham is also known as the Father of the Pentium chip, for his contribution to the development of highly successful Pentium processors from Intel.

USB

USB was developed and defined by Ajay V. Bhatt, who is an Indian-American computer architect

You can also credit him for AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) , PCI Express , Platform Power management architecture and various chipset improvements.

What famous personalities all over the world have to say about India –

"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."
— French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749 - 1827)

We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made. - Albert Einstein

Mark Twain said: India is, the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend, and the great grand mother of tradition. Our most valuable and most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only.

French scholar Romain Rolland said: If there is one place on the face of earth where all the dreams of living men have found a home from the very earliest days when man began the dream of existence, it is India.

Hu Shih, former Ambassador of China to USA said: India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border.

Jayesh Patel said: However great was our past and great was our treasure, a citizen of India who is alive today needs a job for himself and food for family. Great wealth and treasures that your forefathers had centuries ago don't buy you anything today..Like an ostrich, we have become a community who is living in the past and avoiding a hard look at the realities

Sources-

• http://veda.wikidot.com
• https://www.scoopwhoop.com
• https://en.wikipedia.org/
• https://www.google.com/

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Eminent Personalities and Their Contributions -भारत के प्रमुख व्यक्ति एवं उनके कार्य

Here goes the List of all famous personalities who contributed towards the welfare of India by their deeds and by launching various scheme or by enacting movements. This list is helpful in preparation for various competitive exams like SSC, HSSC , RRB , Banking etc. Click below to download this in PDF version.

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Here goes the List of all famous personalities who contributed towards the welfare of India by their deeds and by launching various scheme or by enacting movements. This list is helpful in preparation for various competitive exams like SSC, HSSC , RRB , Banking etc. Click below to download this in PDF version.

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Jallikattu - Timeline of Judgements

Jallikattu (or sallikkattu), also known as eru thazhuvuthal and manju virattu, is a traditional spectacle in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape. Participants hold the hump for as long as possible, attempting to bring the bull to a stop. In some cases, participants must ride long enough to remove flags on the bull's horns.

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Origin –

•   Jallikattu is typically practised in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu (in some areas of Maharastra, Karnatka and Gujrat too) as a part of Pongal celebrations on Mattu Pongal day (the 3rd day of the four-day long event, Pongal).
•  Jallikattu was believed to be a common practice during the classical period (400-100 BC).
•   A seal from Indus Valley civilization depicting the practice is preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi.

Etymology -

Jallikattu is derived from the words ‘calli’ (coins) and ‘kattu’ (tie). Which means a bundle of coins is tied to the bull’s horns. In older times, the tamer sought to remove this bundle from the animal’s head to win gold or silver. He would be called ‘brave’ and ‘valourous’ and would also sometimes be rewarded with a bride.

The bulls are well-fed and are bred by the villagers before the event. 

What happened to the bulls after the event is over ?

• The tamed weak bulls are used for domestic activities and agriculture. While,
•   The strong ones are used for breeding.

Timeline of Judgments on Jallikattu:

1991	The Environment Ministry had banned the training and exhibition of bears, monkeys, tigers, panthers and dogs. This was challenged by the Indian Circus organisation in the Delhi High Court but the court upheld the notification.
2004	Animal activists, the FIAPO (Federation of India Animal Protection Agencies) and PETA India started protest against the practice.The Animal Welfare Board of India filed a case in the Supreme Court of India for an outright ban on Jallikattu because of the cruelty to animals and the threat to public safety involved. Protestors claims that Jallikattu is promoted as bull taming it exploits the bulls’ natural nervousness as prey animals by deliberately placing them in a terrifying situation in which they are forced to run away from those they perceive as predators and the practice effectively involves catching a terrified animal.
2006	The Madras High Court banned it after the death of a young spectator.
2009	Tamil Nadu Government passed Regulation of Jallikattu Act[TNRJA], 2009 giving conditional permission for holding Jallikattu between January and May of any year.
2010	(27 November 2010) Supreme Court also gave conditional permission to jallikattu under the provisions of TNRJA, for a period of five months starting from 15 January of any year. The Government of Tamil Nadu ordered that ₹2 lakh (US$3,000) be deposited by the organizers in case of an accident or injury during the event and enacted a rule to allow a team of veterinarians be present at the venue for certifying the bulls for participation in the event and to provide treatment for bulls that get injured. SC Directions : ü  Bulls must be monitored by Animal welfare board officers to ensure no steroids or performance enhancing drugs are given. ü  Only 4 men against 1 bull. ü  Don’t allow Spectators in the ring. ü  Double barricades to protect innocent bystanders. ü  Medical teams to treat the wounded men and animals.
2011	The Ministry of Environment and Forests added bulls to its 1991 notification banning the training and exhibition of bears, monkeys, tigers, panthers and dogs. (Meaning organizers cannot train bulls for Jallikattu). But the practice continued to be held under Tamil Nadu Regulation of Jallikattu Act No 27 of 2009.
2013	PETA reports that despite SC guideline and Tamilandu Act, the cruelty continues. For example, to ensure bull behaves aggressively, organizers injure its tail, put chilli powder in its eyes, they even feed desi liquor to the bull. When bull behaves violently, crowd gangs up and beats it mercilessly. PETA made documentary, and asked SC for complete ban of this festival.
2014	(7 May 2014)The Supreme Court banned Jallikattu and struck down the 2009 act.
2016	ü  Jan , 2016: The Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change under Modi government amended the 2011 notification, allowing the Jallikattu and bullock cart races across Maharastra, Karnatka and Gujrat with certain conditions (this exemption is subject to the condition that bulls are treated properly and not subjected to cruelty). ü  July , 2016 : The Supreme Court, on a petition filed by Animal welfare Board and PETA, over turned the order and Banned the Sport .
2017	ü  Jan 8 2017,students and youngsters from Tamilnadu gathered at Chennai Marina and conducted a rally opposing the ban of Jallikattu. The participants walked from the lighthouse to labour statue bearing posters saying ‘save Jallikattu’. It is reported that there were 20,000 participants in the rally, which was organized by a group of non-political and youth organizations. Following the protests at Chennai, many students started rallies in various towns of Tamilnadu. ü  Jan 21 2017, Due to these protests,  the Governor of Tamil Nadu issued a new ordinance that authorized the continuation of Jallikattu events. The ordinance is a ‘State amendment’ to the Central Act – Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (1960). This means that in its application to Tamil Nadu, some provisions will be different from what they are for the rest of the country. PCA falls under Entry 17 (Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) in the Concurrent List of the Constitution. This means both the Centre and the States have concurrent power to enact laws on the subject. ü  Jan 23 2017, the Tamil Nadu legislature passed a bi-partisan bill, with the accent of Indian President, exempting jallikattu from the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (1960). But Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Tamil Nadu Amendment) Act of 2017 is not much different from the state law overturned by Supreme Court in 2009.
Conclusion : The legal situation surrounding jallikattu is as yet not clearly resolved. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Tamil Nadu Amendment) Act of 2017 is not much different from the state law overturned by Supreme Court in 2009. For the Supreme Court, the question of interim stay on Tamil Nadu’s Jallikattu Amendment Act is still open.

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Male Reproductive System PDF Download

Human’s reproductive system is located in pelvic cavity which is formed by pelvis bones. The pelvis (plural: pelves) is a set of bones(2 in number). Many people think of the pelvis as the hip bone, because it is at the hip. The pelvis is at the lower end of the spine. In vertebrates, the legs are attached at the pelvis.

The function of the pelvis is to protect the organs used for digesting and for reproduction (making babies). It is also important for bearing some load.

The pelvis is symmetrical. It is made of the following bones:

1. The hip bone made of:

•  The top part is the ilium
•  The middle part (the upper part of the loops) is called pubis
• The lower part (the lower part of the loops) is called ischium

2. The sacrum
3. The coccyx 

The male reproductive system includes the following structures:

1.     Penis
2.     Scrotum
3.     Testes (testicles)
4.     Vas deferens
5.     Seminal vesicles
6.     Prostate gland
7.     Urethra

Penis

The penis is the male sex organ, reaching its full size during puberty. In addition to its sexual function, the penis acts as a conduit for urine to leave the body.

The penis is made of several parts:

Glans (head) of the penis -

It is the sensitive bulbous* structure at the distal* end of the human penis. In uncircumcised men, the glans is covered with pink, moist tissue called mucosa. Covering the glans is the foreskin (prepuce). In circumcised men, the foreskin is surgically removed and the mucosa on the glans transforms into dry skin.

Bulbous – fat/round

Distal- situated away from the centre of the body or from the point of attachment.

Corpus cavernosum -

Two columns of tissue running along the sides of the penis. Blood fills this tissue to cause an erection.

Corpus spongiosum -

 A column of sponge-like tissue running along the front of the penis and ending at the glans penis; it fills with blood during an erection, keeping the urethra -- which runs through it -- open. The urethra runs through the corpus* spongiosum, conducting urine out of the body.

(Corpus - the main body or mass of a structure)

An erection results from changes in blood flow in the penis. When a man becomes sexually aroused, nerves cause penis blood vessels to expand. More blood flows in and less flows out of the penis, hardening the tissue in the corpus cavernosum.

 Scrotum –

The scrotum is a pouch-like structure that hangs behind the penis. It holds and protects the testicles. One testis is typically lower than the other, which functions to avoid compression in the event of impact. The scrotum acts as a climate control system, allowing the testicles to be slightly away from the rest of the body and keeping them slightly cooler than normal body temperature for optimal sperm development. The muscles in the scrotum, called the cremasteric muscles, move the testicles slightly within the scrotum depending on the surrounding temperature.

Testes (testicles)-

The testes (or testicles) are two olive-sized oval bodies, one on the right side and one on the left side. The testes have two main functions:

·         to produce sperm (the male reproductive cell), and

·         to produce testosterone (the male sex hormone).

The epididymides and the vasa deferentia are attached to the testicles and are important in transporting sperm cells after they develop in the testes.

The term testicles includes the testes as well as the surrounding structures, such as the vas deferens and the epididymis. These two names, testes and testicles, are often used interchangeably even though their definitions are slightly different.

Epididymis-

 The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle. It transports and stores sperm cells that are produced in the testes. It also is the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity, since the sperm that emerge from the testes are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens.

 Vas deferens-

 The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra, the tube that carries urine or sperm to outside of the body, in preparation for ejaculation.

Seminal vesicles-

The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder. The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides nutrients for the sperm and lubricates the urethra. This fluid mixes with other fluids to create the semen. The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of a man's ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.

Prostate –

 The prostate is a walnut-sized gland located between the bladder and the penis. The prostate is just in front of the rectum. The urethra runs through the center of the prostate, from the bladder to the penis, letting urine flow out of the body.

The prostate secretes fluid that nourishes and protects sperm. During ejaculation, the prostate squeezes this fluid into the urethra, and it’s expelled with sperm as semen.

Bulbourethral glands -

Also called Cowper's glands(2 in number), these are pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra.

 Ejaculatory ducts-

These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles (see below). The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.

Urethra- 

The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the body. In males, it has the additional function of ejaculating semen when the man reaches orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.

How Does the Male Reproductive System Function?

The entire male reproductive system is dependent on hormones, which are chemicals that regulate the activity of many different types of cells or organs. The primary hormones involved in the male reproductive system are follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and testosterone.

Follicle-stimulating hormone is necessary for sperm production (spermatogenesis), and luteinizing hormone stimulates the production of testosterone, which is also needed to make sperm. Testosterone is responsible for the development of male characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat distribution, bone mass, facial hair growth, voice change, and sex drive.

Terms Related to Penis–

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Genetial(s) – Male’s Reproductive organs.

Dick / Penis / Cock - External Sexual Organ.

Boner - spontaneous erections that occur during sleep or while waking up at morning.

Morning Wood – Non Sexual Erection during and immediately following sleep.

Circumcision - Male circumcision is the removal of the foreskin from the human penis.In the most common procedure, the foreskin is opened, adhesions are removed, and the foreskin is separated from the glans.

An intromittent organ is a general term for an external organ of a male organism that is specialized to deliver sperm during copulation. When animal/human sexual behaviour is reproductively motivated, it is often termed mating or copulation

Pubic hair - Pubic hair is body hair found in the genital area of adolescent and adult humans, located on and around the sex organs, the crotch, and sometimes at the top of the inside of the thighs, in the pubic region around the pubis bone.

Puberty / sexual development - Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction.

To read more about Testicles, Scortum, Epididymis and Urethera please download PDF file.

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Maharashi Charaka - महर्षि चरक - An Introduction PDF Download

महर्षि चरक को औषधि का जनक कहा जाता है।

महर्षि चरक की शिक्षा तक्षशिला में हुई ।

महर्षि चरक का जन्म किस काल या समय में हुआ, इस बात का कोई पुख्ता साक्ष्य उपलब्ध नहीं है। यहां तक कि भारत के पौराणिक इतिहास में भी इससे जुड़ा कोई तथ्य नहीं मिलता।

“त्रिपिटक” का जब चीनी अनुवाद हुआ तो उसमें चरक ऋषि को कनिष्क का राजवैद्य बताया गया लेकिन चरक संहिता बौद्ध मत का विरोध करती है इसलिए ये बात प्रमाणित नहीं कही जा सकती। हां, इस बात से यह अंदाजा जरूर लगाया जा सकता है कि चरक ऋषि का संबंध कनिष्क के काल से रहा होगा।

एक मत के अनुसार चरक व्यक्ति न होकर कृष्ण यजुर्वेद की शाखा का नाम है और 'चरक संहिता' का संकलन उसी शाखा के किसी व्यक्ति ने किया हो। जो भी हो चरक के ग्रंथ की ख्याति विश्व-व्यापी रही है।

महर्षि चरक पहले ऐसे चिकित्सक थे जिन्होंने चयापचय, शरीर प्रतिरक्षा और पाचन से संबंधित रोगों को पहचाना और उनका निदान करने के उपाय बताए।

महर्षि चरक ने ही सर्वप्रथम मानव शरीर में मौजूद तीन स्थायी दोषों, वात, पित्त और कफ को पहचाना और इनकी अवधारणा को दुनिया के समक्ष प्रस्तुत किया।

महर्षि चरक के अनुसार शरीर में मौजूद वात, पित्त और कफ जैसे स्थायी दोष जब तक संतुलित अवस्था में रहते हैं, तभी तक इंसान का शरीर स्वस्थ रहता है। जैसे ही इनके बीच मौजूद संतुलन बिगड़ने लगता है, मानव शरीर रोग ग्रस्त हो जाता है। इसलिए स्वस्थ रहने के लिए ये बहुत जरूरी है कि व्यक्ति इन तीनों के बिगड़ते संतुलन को पहचाने और उसे सही करने का प्रयास करे।

चरक संहिता की उत्पत्ति –

हिन्दू धर्म में त्रिदेवों का विशेष महत्व है, जिनमें ब्रह्मा को सृष्टि का रचयिता, विष्णु को पालनहार और महेश को विनाशक कहा जाता है। पौराणिक दस्तावेजों के अनुसार जब ब्रह्मा ने सृष्टि की रचना संपन्न कर ली तब उन्होंने देखा कि उनके बनाए हुए मानव भिन्न-भिन्न रोगों की चपेट में आते जा रहे हैं।

इस समस्या से छुटकारा पाने के लिए जब असुरों और देवताओं के बीच समुद्र मंथन हुआ तब स्वयं भगवान विष्णु ही धनवंतरि का रूप लेकर समुद्र में से निकले और उन्होंने ही आयुर्वेद की रचना की। माना जाता है कि सर्वप्रथम ब्रह्मा ने आयुर्वेद का ज्ञान अपने पुत्र प्रजापति को प्रदान किया और प्रजापति से यह ज्ञान अश्विन कुमारों तक पहुंचा और अश्विन कुमारों ने आयुर्वेद के ज्ञान को इन्द्र देव को प्रदान किया।

कहते हैं एक बार धरती पर फैली महामारियों के प्रकोप से हजारों की संख्या में मनुष्य अपनी जान गंवाते जा रहे थे। इस बात से देवता और ऋषि-मुनि सभी परेशान थे। इस समस्या का निदान पाने के लिए प्रमुख ऋषि-मुनियों ने हिमालय में एक सभा बुलाई और उस सभा में सर्वसम्मति के साथ ऋषि भारद्वाज को प्रमुख बनाकर इन्द्र देव के पास आयुर्वेद का ज्ञान प्राप्त करने के लिए भेजा। इंद्र देव ने समस्त ज्ञान ऋषि भरद्वाज को प्रदान किया और बाद में भारद्वाज ऋषि ने अपने शिष्यों, आत्रेय और पुनर्वसु को यह ज्ञान प्रसारित किया।

इसके बाद अत्रेय-पुनर्वसु के शिष्यों ने अपनी प्रतिभानुसार आयुर्वेद के ग्रंथों की रचना की। इनमें आत्रेय-पुनर्वसु के शिष्य अग्निवेश ने “अग्निवेश संहिता” की रचना की जिसे कालांतर में “चरक संहिता” भी कहा गया, क्योंकि इसका संपादन महर्षि चरक द्वारा किया गया था।

चरक संहिता की रचना संस्कृत भाषा में हुई और कहीं-कहीं इसमें पालि भाषा के भी शब्द मिलते हैं। इस संहिता को गद्य और पद्य दोनों में ही लिखा गया है और इसे आठ स्थान और 120 अध्यायों में विभाजित किया गया है।

चरक संहिता में व्याधियों के उपचार तो बताए ही गए हैं, प्रसंगवश स्थान-स्थान पर दर्शन और अर्थशास्त्र के विषयों की भी उल्लेख है।

आठवीं शताब्दी में इस ग्रंथ का अरबी भाषा में अनुवाद हुआ और यह शास्त्र पश्चिमी देशों तक पहुंचा।

'चरक संहिता' आज भी वैद्यक का अद्वितीय ग्रंथ माना जाता है।

'चरक संहिता' के आठ स्‍थान निम्‍नानुसार हैं

1. सूत्रस्‍थान - इस भाग में औषधि विज्ञान, आहार, पथ्‍यापथ्‍य, विशेष रोग और शारीरिक तथा मानसिक रोगों की चिकित्‍सा का वर्णन किया गया है।

2. निदानस्‍थान - आयुर्वेद पद्धति में रोगों का कारण पता करने की प्रक्रिया को निदान कहा जाता है। इस खण्‍ड में प्रमुख रोगों एवं उनके उपचार की जानकारी प्रदान की गयी है।

3. विमानस्‍थान - इस अध्‍याय में भोजन एवं शरीर के सम्‍बंध को दर्शाया गया है तथा स्‍वास्‍थ्‍यवर्द्धक भोजन के बारे में जानकारी प्रदान की गयी है।

4. शरीरस्‍थान - इस खण्‍ड में मानव शरीर की रचना का विस्‍तार से परिचय दिया गया है। गर्भ में बालक के जन्‍म लेने तथा उसके विकास की प्रक्रिया को भी इस खण्‍ड में वर्णित किया गया है।

5. इंद्रियस्‍थान - यह खण्‍ड मूल रूप में रोगों की प्रकृति एवं उसके उपचार पर केन्द्रित है।

6. चिकित्‍सास्‍थान - इस प्रकरण में कुछ महत्‍वपूर्ण रोगों का वर्णन है। उन रोगों की पहचान कैसे की जाए तथा उनके उपचार की महत्‍वपूर्ण विधियाँ कौन सी हैं, इसकी जानकारी भी प्रदान की गयी है।

7. और  8. साधारण बीमारियाँ - ये अपेक्षाकृत छोटे अध्‍याय हैं, जिनमें साधारण बीमारियों के बारे में बताया गया है।

ध्यान दें – आयुर्वेद की सर्वश्रेष्ठ कृति मानी जाने वाली “चरक संहिता” में भारत के अलावा यवन, शक, चीनी आदि जातियों के खानपान और जीवनशैली का भी जिक्र मिलता है। इस पुस्तक को विभिन्न भाषाओं में अनुवादित भी किया जा चुका है। अरब के प्रसिद्ध इतिहासकार और विद्वान अल-बरूनी ने भी कहा था “हिन्दुओं की एक पुस्तक चरक के नाम से प्रसिद्ध है, जो कि औषधि की सर्वश्रेष्ठ पुस्तक मानी जा सकती है।“

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